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Kashmir Shaivism tradition is a 20th century umbrella-term for a body of Sanskrit exegetical literature from several Nondualism ShaivismShaktism Tantra and Monism religious traditions, often used synonymously for the Trika-school or the "Philosophy of Recognition" ( Pratyabhijna). These traditions originated in Kashmir Valley after 850 CE, as an Sanskritization to upper-class Hindu norms of 'wild' tantric Kaula traditions. Trika Shaivism later spread beyond Kashmir, particularly flourishing in the states of Odisha and Maharashtra.
Defining features of the Trika tradition are its Idealism and Monism pratyabhijna ("direct knowledge of one's self," "recognition") philosophical system, propounded by Utpaladeva (c. 925–975 CE) and Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025 CE), and the use of several triades in its philosophy, including the three goddesses Parashakti, Parāparā, and Aparā.
While Trika draws from numerous Shaiva texts, such as the Shaiva Agamas and the Shaiva and Shakta Tantras, its major scriptural authorities are the Mālinīvijayottara Tantra, the Siddhayogeśvarīmata and the Anāmaka-tantra. Its main exegetical works are those of Abhinavagupta, such as the Tantraloka, Mālinīślokavārttika, and Tantrasāra which are formally an exegesis of the Mālinīvijayottara Tantra, although they also drew heavily on the Kali-based Krama subcategory of the Kulamārga. Another important text of this tradition is the Vijñāna-bhairava-tantra, which focuses on outlining numerous yogic practices.
Kashmir Shaivism shares many parallel points of agreement with the lesser-known monistic school of Shaiva Siddhanta as expressed in the Tirumantiram of Tirumular. It also shares this branch's disagreements with the dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta school of Meykandar, which scholars consider to be normative tantric Shaivism. The doctrines of Kashmir Shaivism were very influential on the Shri Vidya tradition of Shaktism.
One result of this domestication-process was the composition, by monistic Saivite Brahmins, of "increasingly systematic manuals of doctrines and practices on the model of Sanskrit scholastic texts ( shāstras). This textual development began with the Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta (9th cent. CE) and the Spandakārikā (9th cent. CE), which are the central texts of the Spanda system, interpreting Shakti as spanda, "cosmic pulsation," the active and creative energy of Shiva.
The Shiva Sutras appeared to Vasugupta in a dream, according to tradition. The Spandakārikā was either composed by Vasugupta (c. 800-850 CE) or his student Bhatta Kallata (9th cent. CE). These were a Śākta Śaiva attempt to present a non-dualistic metaphysics and gnostic soteriology, in opposition to the dualistic exegesis of the Meykandar school of Shaiva Siddhanta, while remaining in agreement with the monistic view expressed in the older and arguably more authoritative Tirumantiram of Tirumular.
Somananda (875-925) wrote the Śivadr̥ṣṭi, "the first work of full-fledged scholastic philosophy" of the Trika school. Utpaladeva (c. 900–950 CE) and Abhinavagupta (c. 950–1016, a student of one of Utpaladeva's disciples) developed the Pratyabhijñā-system into its mature form. Utpaladeva's Īśvarapratyabhijñā-kārikā (Verses on the Recognition of the Lord) is one of the main works of this tradition, but was overshadowed by the work of Abhinavagupta. Thus, according to Torella, "Abhinavagupta's Īśvarapratyabhijñā-Vimarśinī and the Īśvarapratyabhijñā-Vivr̥ti-Vimarśinī (a commentary on Utpaladeva’s Vivr̥ti on his own Īśvarapratyabhijñā-Kārikā and Vr̥tti) are generally considered the standard works of the Pratyabhijñā." Torella notes however, that "most of Abhinavagupta’s ideas are just the development of what Utpaladeva had already expounded."
Abhinavagupta's tantric synthesis was the most influential form of the tantric "Kashmir Shaivism". It brought together elements from the following (lineages): the Trika, Pratyabhijñā, the Kaula Krama, and Shaiva Siddhantha.
Abhinavagupta wrote numerous other works on Shaiva tantra. His Tantrāloka, Mālinīślokavārttika, and Tantrasāra are mainly based on the Trika, although they also drew heavily on the Kali-based Krama tradition of the Kulamārga. Abhinavagupta's Tantrāloka is probably his most important work. According to Christopher Wallis, "the Tantrāloka is a monumental explication of Tantrik practice and philosophy in over 5,800 verses. It is encyclopedic in its scope though not organized like an encyclopedia, for instead of just enumerating theories and practices, it brings them all into a coherent framework in which everything has its place and everything makes sense in relation to the whole."
One of Abhinavagupta's students, Kshemaraja, is also an important figure who authored the short Pratyabhijñāhṛdayam ( The Essence of Self-Recognition).
Jayaratha (1150–1200 CE) wrote a commentary on the Tantrāloka.
The number of major writers and publications declined after approximately the 14th century, although writers such as Rājānaka Ānanda Kavi, Anantaśaktipāda, Śivopādhyāya, Bhāskarakaṇṭha, Rājānaka Lakṣmīrāma, and Harabhaṭṭa Śāstri continued to produce important commentaries on core Kashmiri Shaiva texts into the early 20th century. (2025). 9788120842205, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 9788120842205
Acharya Rameshwar Jha, a disciple of Lakshman Joo, is often credited with establishing the roots of Kashmir Shaivism in the learned community of Varanasi. Rameshwar Jha with his creativity, familiarity with the ancient texts and personal experiences provided access to concepts of non-dualistic Kashmir Shaivism. His writings of Sanskrit verses have been published as the books Purnta PratyabhijnaPratyabhijna Press Varanasi, Publishers Arun Krishna Joshi, Vijay Krishna Joshi, Nichi bag Varanasi and Samit Swatantram.
Lilian Silburn (1908–1993) was a French Indologist specialising in Kashmir Shaivism, Tantra and Buddhism. Working together with Louis Renou, she translated from Sanskrit and published the core scriptures of Kashmir Shaivism, including Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta, Vijnana Bhairava Tantra, and others, many being first-ever translations of the recently discovered texts. Silburn, a student of Lakshman Joo, authored Kundalini: The Energy of the Depths, A Comprehensive Study Based on the Scriptures of Nondualistic Kasmir Saivism (Shaiva Traditions of Kashmir, State University of New York Press, 1988).
Muktananda, although not belonging to the direct lineage of Kashmir Shaivism, felt an affinity for the teachings, validated by his own direct experience.Lal Ded: The great Kashmiri Saint-poetess, Proceedings of the National Seminar Conducted by Kashmir Education, Culture and Science Society. p12Play of Consciousness – A Spiritual Autobiography, Swami Muktananda, p117 He encouraged Motilal Banarsidass to publish Jaideva Singh's translations of Shiva Sutras, Pratyabhijnahrdayam, Spanda Karikas and Vijnana Bhairava, all of which Singh studied in-depth with Lakshman Joo.Swami Durgananda,‘To See the World Full of Saints’ in Meditation Revolution, Brooks, Durgananda et al, pp96-97Siva Sutras – The Yoga of Supreme Identity, Jaideva Singh p iv He also introduced Kashmir Shaivism to a wide audience of western meditators through his writings and lectures on the subject.Swami Durgananda, ‘To See the World Full of Saints’ in Meditation Revolution, Brooks, Durgananda et al, pp.96-97Secret of the Siddhas, Swami Muktananda, Chapters 9-37
The Vijnana Bhairava Tantra, a chapter from the Rudrayamala Tantra, was introduced to the West by Paul Reps, a student of Lakshman Joo, by including an English translation in his book Zen Flesh, Zen Bones. Cast as a discourse between the god Shiva and his consort Devi or Shakti, it presents 112 meditation methods or centering techniques ( dharanas).Paul Reps, Zen Flesh, Zen Bones, A Collection of Zen and Pre-Zen Writings ()
The four key Trika mandalas from Abhinavagupta’s Tantrāloka, previously considered indecipherable, were translated, decoded and illustrated by Christian de Vietri in his 2024 book titled Trika Maṇḍala Prakāśa.
According to Christopher Wallis, the philosophy of Trika Shaivism also adopted much of the ontological apparatus of Samkhya school, such as its system of 25 tattvas, expanding and reinterpreting it for its own system of 36 tattvas.Wallis, Christopher D. The Philosophy of the Śaiva Religion in Context, Field Statement for Dr. Robert Goldman Another important source for Trika is the monistic theism of Tirumular's Shaiva Siddhanta. The Saivas also were influenced by the work of Buddhist Yogachara and Pramanavada philosophers, especially Dharmakirti, who was also taken as a primary non-Saiva opponent and whose doctrines were sometimes absorbed into the Pratyabhijñā system.Torella, Raffaele. 1992. "The Pratyabhijñā and the Logical-Epistemological School of Buddhism" in Ritual and Speculation in Early Tantrism: Studies in Honor of Andre Padoux. Albany: SUNY Press.
The school's theology is expressed by Kshemaraja in his Pratyabhijñā-hṛdayam ( The Heart of Recognition) as follows:
The central thesis of this philosophy is that everything is a manifestation or unfolding of absolute consciousness, termed Shiva, and it is possible to "re-cognise" this fundamental reality and be freed from limitations, identified with Śiva and immersed in bliss.The Yoga of Kashmir Shaivism – S.Shankarananda, p. 45 Thus, the slave ( paśu: the human condition) shakes off the fetters ( pāśa) and becomes the master ( pati: the divine condition).
Pratyabhijna, the 'philosophy of recognition', as outlined by thinkers like Utpaladeva, teaches that though the identity of all souls is one with God (Ishvara) or Shiva (which is the single reality, Being and absolute consciousness), they have forgotten this due to Maya or ignorance. However, through knowledge one can recognize one's authentic divine nature and become a liberated being.
The modern scholar-practitioner of Shaiva Tantra, Christopher Wallis outlines the metaphysics and theology of non-dual Shaiva Tantra thus:
This single supreme reality is also sometimes referred to as Aham (the heart). It is considered to be a non-dual interior space of Śiva, support for the entire manifestation,, Jaideva Singh, page 194 supreme mantra , Jaideva Singh, page 180 and identical to Śakti., Jaideva Singh, page 127
Jaideva Singh lists seven key differences between Advaita and Kashmir Shaivism, where in Kashmir Shaivism,
Although domesticated into a householder tradition, Kashmir Shaivism recommended a secret performance of Kaula practices in keeping with its tantric heritage. This was to be done in seclusion from public eyes, therefore allowing one to maintain the appearance of a typical householder.Flood, Gavin. 2006. The Tantric Body. P.14
The Mālinīvijayottara Tantra outlines several major preconditions conferring the authority to practice Yoga:
The Yogin who has mastered posture and the mind, controlled the vital energy, subdued the senses, conquered sleep, overcome anger and agitation and who is free from deceit, should practise Yoga in a quiet, pleasant cave or earthen hut free from all obstructions.
Each of the goals is given specific practices. For example, in the Mālinīvijayottara Tantra, perfecting the Void is said to be reached by moving the mind and vital energy (through the use of mantric resonance) through two groups of three voids located along the Susumna (which are also correlated with a system of six Chakra), reaching to the region above the head. Different scriptures outline different lists of voids and their location in the body. The practice of resonance deals with various sounds, and how the yogin is to focus on a specific sound and its resonance within the central channel.
Regarding mantra, different Saiva tantras and texts teach different and bija (seed) mantras. These mantras are generally intoned ( uccara) at different positions in the body along the central channel (such as at the heart, throat, forehead, etc). The Diksottara tantra for example, teaches the intonation of the
Two of these have been assimilated from the Tantras of the Shaiva Siddhanta which has two schools, one monist and the other dualistGanapathy, T.N. 2004. The Yoga of Tirumular: essays on the Tirumandiram. P.463Ganapathy, T.N. 2013. The Tirumandiram / by Siddhar Tirumular; English translation and commentary. P.3457 1. the conquest of the reality-levels ( tattvajaya), which has been transformed into a radically new type of yoga based on the fifteen levels of the apperceptive process, and, 2. the yoga of six ancillaries ( ṣaḍaṅgayoga), which is taken over with only minor variations. The third is 3. Kaula yoga with its system of four immersions (pindastha, padastha, rupastha and rupatita) and as a fourth may be counted 4. the three types of possession (avesa) taught in the Trika (anava, sakta and sambhava) which are innovatively presented as three meta-categories under which all yogic exercises can be subsumed.
The Yogin starts by disengaging the mind from external stimuli and then fixes it upon a tattva such with ever deepening absorption. He attains an internalised vision of the reality, and compares it with his authoritative, scriptural knowledge of the highest level. By means of tarka reasoning, an ontological value judgement, he discerns that it is different from Siva and thus transcends it. The Yogin’s ascension inevitably brings him to the reality which is Siva at the zenith of all paths.
One example of the meditation on the tattva of buddhi (intellect) from the Mālinīvijayottara Tantra is as follows:
Contemplating in the heart a lotus with colour of the rising sun, with eight petals containing the eight of dharma etc., and a pericarp, the intellect becomes steady within a month. Within six he becomes a knower of the Sruti (scripture). Within three years he himself becomes an author of scriptures. Contemplating his own physical form there (in the heart), he perceives the principle of intellect.
These six subsidiaries as outlined by the Mālinīvijayottara Tantra, are:
In the Mālinīvijayottara Tantra (chapter 17) , these are seen as six progressive steps leading to complete identification with the object of meditation. It is important to note that different Saiva tantras outline different forms of the six ancillaries, and "there is no consensus as to their order, their definition or even their subdivisions" among the different tantras.
As a monistic Tantra system, Trika Shaivism, as it is also known, draws teachings from shrutis, such as the monistic Bhairava Tantras, Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta, and also a unique version of the Bhagavad Gita which has a commentary by Abhinavagupta, known as the Gitartha Samgraha. Teachings are also drawn from the Tantraloka of Abhinavagupta, prominent among a vast body of smritis employed by Kashmir Shaivism.
In general, the whole written tradition of Shaivism can be divided in three fundamental parts: Āgama Śāstra, Spanda Śāstra and Pratyabhijñā Śāstra.The Trika Shaivism of Kashmir, Moti Lal Pandit, pag. IX
1. Āgama Śāstra are those writings that are considered as being a direct revelation from Siva. These writings were first communicated orally, from the master to the worthy disciple. They include essential works such as , , , , , , and others. There are also numerous commentaries to these works, having most of them.The Trika Shaivism of Kashmir, Moti Lal Pandit, pag. X
2. , the main work of which is of Bhatta Kallata, a disciple of Vasugupta, with its many commentaries. Out of them, two are of major importance: (this commentary talks only about the first verses of ), and (which is a commentary of the complete text).
3. Pratyabhijna Śāstra are those writings which have mainly a metaphysics content. Due to their extremely high spiritual and intellectual level, this part of the written tradition of Shaivism is the least accessible for the uninitiated. Nevertheless, this corpus of writings refers to the simplest and most direct modality of spiritual realization. Pratyabhijñā means "recognition" and refers to the spontaneous recognition of the divine nature hidden in each human being (atman). The most important works in this category are: , the fundamental work of Utpaladeva, and , a commentary to . means in fact the direct recognition of the Lord ( Īśvara) as identical to one's Heart. Before Utpaladeva, his master Somānanda wrote ( The Vision of Siva), a devotional poem written on multiple levels of meaning.The Trika Shaivism of Kashmir, Moti Lal Pandit, pag. XI
Trika Shaivism also strongly influenced Shaktism traditions. Shri Vidya, which likely originated in Kashmir, relied heavily on Trika philosophy in its seminal explanatory texts like the Yoginīhṛdaya and received commentaries by Trika masters like Jayaratha, and became an influential tradition on mainstream Hinduism, flourishing with institutional support in South India. Another tantric tradition influenced by Trika was the post-classical Kalikula (family of Kali) form of Shaktism which is influential in northeastern Indian regions, such as in Bengal, Orissa, and Nepāl.
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